Black Carbon Particles and Microplastic Fibers Pollute Glaciers

By Helen Gloege ’23

Staff Writer

Across remote regions of the world, microplastic fibers and polymer fragments have been found in ocean sediments, beaches around the Antarctic islands, in Arctic ice and in the tissues of living things. Microplastics have been found on Mount Everest, considered one of the most remote and pristine places in the world. Along with the discovery of microplastics, black carbon levels have been spiking, covering glaciers and snow-capped mountains in the Himalayas with fine black particles.

Microplastics generally refer to pieces of plastic smaller than 5 millimeters that derive from plastic products and plastic waste. Microplastics found in the snow of Mount Everest in 2019 have set an altitude record for identification at 8,440 meters, nearly the height of the summit, which stands at 8,848 meters.

In One Earth, an environmental research journal, researchers reported that they had identified 12 fibrous plastic particles in each liter of snow from the highest measurement taken at the balcony area of Everest. Particles were also found in stream water at higher altitudes and at the Everest Base Camp where 79 plastic particles were identified per liter of snow. The samples were taken by a National Geographic research team as an investigation into the impact of climate change on the world’s highest peak. The collected samples were then studied by Imogen Napper, a National Geographic expedition scientist based at University of Plymouth in the United Kingdom, which was the first time microplastics from a mountain had ever been studied. Napper was surprised to find microplastics in every single snow sample analyzed.

It is theorized that the microplastics made it to Mount Everest through a climber’s gear or were blown by the wind. These microplastics were found to be mainly made of polyester followed by acrylic, nylon and polypropylene. These materials are commonly found in outdoor gear made from synthetic fibers that tend to shed trace amounts of fibers while they are worn.

Visitors to Sagarmatha National Park in Nepal and the slopes of Mount Everest have steadily increased over the decades, increasing the potential for forms of plastic waste. In 1979, the region hosted around 3,600 trekkers and climbers. In 2016, that number rose to 45,000, and by 2019, the amount of climbers had increased to the point that queues formed to take turns to reach the summit. 

There has also been a significant increase in the plastic products manufactured since climbers began taking to the slopes. About 70 years ago, companies manufactured plastic products at a rate of 5 million tons a year, and it is estimated that in 2020, the world has already purchased 330 million tons, most of which in the form of single-use plastic. It is also estimated that between 93,000 and 236,000 tons of plastic are floating on ocean surfaces. With this massive amount of plastic waste, it almost seems inevitable for microplastics to make their way to even the most remote spaces of the world. 

The presence of microplastics on Mount Everest doesn’t pose an immediate environmental threat. The biggest concern facing Mount Everest and other Himalayan glaciers is an accelerating rate of ice loss. Surface ice at base camp in Nepal is 150 feet lower today than it was 35 years ago. Losing these glaciers will significantly impact local communities. Millions downstream depend on the glaciers for freshwater, and they play a role in agriculture and the vital mountain tourism industry. 

As part of a Mount Everest expedition in 2019 by National Geographic in collaboration with other researchers, surveys were taken at the base camp and surrounding area of the Khumbu Glacier. The team used LIDAR, a type of laser scanning and photogrammetry to create a 3D model of the area. Based on digital reconstructions of the surface of the Khumbu Glacier and 78 other glaciers nearby Everest dating back to 1962, the collected data showed that the glaciers have been consistently melting since 1962 and are dwindling at rates over 50 percent faster than six decades ago. Scientists have also found ice melting at altitudes over 20,000 feet, levels where it was assumed ice should remain frozen solid throughout the year. This has been explained as the glaciers thinning due to decreased snowfall caused by rising temperatures. In addition to the Himalayas, glaciers are found to be melting in the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, the Canadian Rockies and the Alps, among others.

Another concern for glacial melting is the increased prominence of black carbon, more commonly known as soot. The process of burning fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, volatile organic compounds, other organic compounds and black carbon particles.  Most of the black carbon in the U.S. comes from diesel engines, biomass burning, wildfires, residential heating and industrial processes. Diesel vehicles and open biomass burning contribute significant emissions. In other countries, black carbon emissions tend to come from brick kilns, ovens, cookstoves and diesel vehicles. The pollutant is potentially dangerous to human health because of its small size. Black carbon is linked with decreased visibility over a distance, harming ecosystems and causing a reduction in agricultural productivity. It also negatively impacts people’s overall health. 

Black carbon remains in the atmosphere for days to weeks before descending as rain or snow. When it falls as precipitation, the black carbon darkens the surface of the snow and ice. This reduces the albedo, the reflecting power of a surface, and warms the snow, therefore hastening to melt. Black carbon has fine particles that absorb light and about a million times more energy than carbon dioxide.

It is estimated that black carbon is the second-largest contributor to climate change after carbon dioxide. Black carbon interacts with other components of particulate matter, so it is hard to know exactly how much black carbon directly contributes to global warming.

A report that came out this year from a study done in 2016 by scientists at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology measured variations in black carbon in Chirbasa, near the Gangotri Glacier in the Indian Himalayas. The study found that the monthly mean concentration of black carbon was at a maximum in May and a minimum in August. The concentrations varied between 0.01 ug/cubic meter in the winter to 4.62 ug/cubic meter during the summer, showing an increase of 400 times during the summer. The zone of measurement was far from sources of pollution, so the measurements are critical for establishing a baseline for pollution loads and estimating the contribution of various sources to pollution. The study was conducted in India which is the second largest emitter of black carbon in the world. 

Another study led by the University of Alaska Southeast’s Assistant Professor of Geology and Alaska Coastal Rainforest Center collaborator Sonia Nagorski, along with others, studied the Juneau Icefield, the fifth-largest icefield in North America. It is estimated that two-thirds of the area will be lost by the end of the century, and by 2200, the icefield will be gone entirely. Natural mineral dust is exposed by the retreating glaciers and collects on the surface. The glacier snow begins to melt faster as light-absorbing particles collect throughout the summer melt season. This creates a cycle in which the particles on the snow’s surface speed up melting, causing the particles to become more concentrated and the snow to become less effective at reflecting light. The study found 40 times more light-absorbing particles in July compared to May at some sites. In the case of the Juneau Icefield, it is likely that the wind blows black carbon from forest fires to the glaciers.

There is a lack of research and information about black carbon and microplastics that prohibits a full understanding of the environmental impacts of the pollutant. Until a time of greater comprehension, other negative impacts on areas like agriculture and health will continue to be discovered.

Museums, Anthropology and Social Understanding in the Time of COVID-19

Photo by Lily Reavis ‘21

By Anoushka Kuswaha ’24

Health & Science Writer

In the face of COVID-19, museums have had to adapt to the challenges that the virus presents, like every other institution or business. Museums in Europe and North America were quickly able to create a digital presence for themselves on the internet toward the beginning of the pandemic. In the digital museum era, viewers are able to see a larger showcase of individualism. Many museums highlighted their curators and conservationists, as well as the artists that provide their content. Mount Holyoke’s art museum, for example, is highlighting the input of its students, employees, and alumni. 

Currently, the Mount Holyoke College Art Museum (MHCAM) is highlighting the work of alumna Joan Jonas ’58 and artist Bisa Butler, with a spotlight specifically on the museum’s recent acquisition of her portrait quilt, “Broom Jumpers” (2019). The museum, like many of its kind around the globe, has created virtual recreations of its exhibitions. Others currently utilizing the same virtual model include the Musée du Louvre in Paris and the Museo Nacional Thyssen-Bornemisza in Madrid. 

In addition to the creation of these virtual exhibitions on their websites, museums are using social media to continue their work at this time. Some have created prompts for their followers, the most well known being the Getty Museum’s challenge, which asks self-isolators to recreate one of the many paintings in its collection. Upon the museum’s announcement of this online challenge, bored art enthusiasts flooded social media threads with their own at-home interpretations. In the U.K., self-described “museum-weirdos” are creating and posting videos about their favorite art pieces and museums with the hashtag #MuseumAtHome. Their goal is to keep the love for museums alive while they are not accessible to the public due to the coronavirus pandemic. The Museum of Digital Art in Zürich, Switzerland — this writer’s city of residence — is hosting a variety of classes with creative contributors for all ages through live streaming. Close to Mount Holyoke, the National Museum of African American History and Culture documented and collected artifacts from the current Black Lives Matter protests. 

Despite the many inventive ways that museums have gone digital this year, the inaccessibility of technology was made apparent just as quickly as these digital presences became known. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization’s reports on museums found that only 5 percent of African and Small Island Developing States were able to create and maintain a virtual presence that is comparable to those presented by North American and European museums. In this same report, it is stated that more than 10 percent of museums will never reopen after this period of closure. 

Museums are intrinsically linked to scholarly work and the knowledge of diverse cultures, religions, and societies. They spark inspiration and dialogue, as they hold tangible links to the past. In the time of COVID-19, where human volatility and differences are becoming more and more apparent, the knowledge and appreciation of cultures different from one’s own has become even more important. 

This year, museums around the world have taken on a second and perhaps more important role as conservationists. Using the internet and social media, museums have begun collecting, documenting, and disseminating information about the virus and its impact on current and future generations. An example of this is the Museum Europäischer Kulturen located in Berlin, Germany. The MEK is using the hashtag #CollectingCorona on social media to collect videos, writings, photos, and art in any language, asking people all around the world how the pandemic has impacted their lives, their jobs, their mental health, and their families. All of this media will be compiled for a future exhibition at the MEK. In Sweden and Norway, a website called Minnen, or “Memories,” has been created for the purpose of collecting stories from around the world that document the human experience with COVID-19. 

Museum curators using social media currently have the opportunity to hear firsthand accounts from residents of all corners of the world. A small business owner sends in a poem. An autistic student describes his experience with homeschooling. A schoolboy describes the different social media that he uses throughout the morning and how he prepares his breakfast. A six-year-old girl questions how her mother told her to eat eggs to boost her immune system. 

As havens of anthropology, museums are markers for the level of civilization we have achieved as a collective human society. Their work in the time of the coronavirus pandemic serves as a reminder to generations in the present and the future of humanity’s hope, whimsy, courage, hate, and appreciation for the world around us.